Aurelius Caesar: The Early Reign of Antoninus Pius and the Education of Marcus Aurelius (Aurelius Bio Part 3)

This article is about the pivotal transition of power following the death of Emperor Hadrian in 138 AD and the subsequent elevation of Marcus Aurelius within the Roman imperial structure.

Under the guidance of his adoptive father, Antoninus Pius, Marcus was integrated into the administrative and social fabric of the principate through strategic marriage realignments, the acquisition of high-level titles, and a rigorous education under the era's most celebrated rhetoricians and philosophers.

The period is characterized by Antoninus Pius’s effort to stabilize the relationship between the throne and the Senate—a task achieved through his display of pietas and clementia—and the intensive preparation of Marcus Aurelius for future leadership. Marcus's own reflections during this time, preserved in his Meditations, reveal an internal struggle to maintain personal integrity and Stoic principles while navigating the pomp of court and the pressures of public life.

I. The Transition of Power and Dynastic Realignment

Following Hadrian’s death, Antoninus Pius assumed the responsibility of the funeral arrangements and the immediate consolidation of the new regime.

A. Funeral Rites and Initial Tensions

• Hadrian’s Burial: Hadrian was initially buried privately at Puteoli, as his massive mausoleum on the Tiber was unfinished. Marcus remained in Rome to lead the funeral rites of his adoptive grandfather, which included public announcements and a private gladiatorial spectacle.
• Conflict with the Senate: Antoninus faced immediate opposition from a Senate that harbored deep resentment toward Hadrian. The Senate initially refused to deify Hadrian and even proposed annulling his acts.
• Establishment of “Pius”: Antoninus forced the deification of Hadrian through “universal opposition.” His insistence on honoring his father, combined with his rescue of senators Hadrian had condemned to death, earned him the title Pius (meaning “dutiful”).

B. Strategic Marriage Reorganizations

Antoninus immediately altered the dynastic marriage plans previously set by Hadrian:

• Dissolution of Betrothals: Marcus’s betrothal to Ceionia Fabia was dissolved. Similarly, the betrothal between Faustina (Antoninus’s daughter) and Lucius Commodus was cancelled.
• New Alliances: Marcus was betrothed to his first cousin, the younger Faustina. Because she was only eight or nine at the time, the marriage did not occur until 145 AD.
• Significance: Marcus consented to these changes “without demur,” as betrothals lacked binding legal obligations and the move solidified his position as the primary heir.

II. The Elevation of Marcus Aurelius

Marcus's transition from a “quaestor-designate” to a central figure in the imperial administration was marked by rapid promotions and a change in lifestyle.

A. Titles and Public Role

• Naming Convention: He assumed the names Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.
• Princeps Iuventutis: In 139 AD, he was named sevir at the annual parade of knights and received the title princeps iuventutis (leader of the knights).
• Consulship: He was designated consul for 140 AD, serving alongside Antoninus Pius.
• Administrative Duties: Marcus functioned essentially as a “parliamentary private secretary” to the emperor, reading letters to the Senate and presiding over meetings during his consulship.

B. Life at Court

Marcus was required to relocate to the House of Tiberius on the Palatine Hill.

• The “Pomp of Court”: The source context highlights Marcus's struggle with the aulicum fastigium (pomp of court).
• Stoic Resistance: In his Meditations, Marcus famously noted, “where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace.” He credited Antoninus with helping him “strip off all my pride” and demonstrating that a prince could live nearly as a private citizen without bodyguards or embroidered uniforms.

III. Administrative and Military Developments

While Marcus focused on his education, Antoninus Pius managed the empire with a blend of continuity and subtle reform.

A. Administrative Stability

• Personnel Continuity: Pius generally retained Hadrian's nominees to maintain stability.
• Judicial Reform: He abolished the “four consulars” who carried out judicial functions in Italy, a move intended to reduce imperial interference and please the Senate.

B. The War in Britain (139–142 AD)

The most significant military action involved the appointment of Quintus Lollius Urbicus as governor of Britain in 139 AD.

• New Frontier: Urbicus abandoned Hadrian's stone frontier and pushed north, constructing a new turf frontier between the Forth and the Clyde.
• Imperial Acclamation: Following victories in Britain, Pius accepted the title Imp. II in 142 AD. This was the only such military title he accepted during his reign, underscoring the success of the campaign.

C. Foreign Diplomacy

The regime maintained Roman prestige through diplomatic means rather than war:

• The East: The Armenians accepted a Roman nominee for their throne, and the king of the Hiberi visited Rome.
• The Danube: A new ruler was chosen for the Quadi, commemorated on coinage with the legend REX QUADIS DATUS.

IV. The Character of Antoninus Pius

The sources provide a detailed portrait of Antoninus Pius, largely derived from Marcus’s admiring descriptions in the Meditations.

V. The Imperial Education: Tutors and Intellectual Influences

Marcus entered the third stage of his education, the toga virilis, focusing on oratory, law, and philosophy.

A. Philosophy: Apollonius of Chalcedon

Marcus was summoned to learn from Apollonius at the palace.

• The Lesson of Independence: From Apollonius, Marcus learned “moral freedom” and how to remain “always the same, in sharp attacks of pain, in the loss of a child, in long illnesses.”
• Financial Integrity: Despite Pius’s mockery of Apollonius’s perceived greed, Marcus valued the philosopher’s technical accomplishment and his example of how to accept “pretended favours of friends” without losing self-respect.

B. Law: Lucius Volusius Maecianus

Marcus studied law under Maecianus, a knight whom Pius had appointed as director of the public posting-service (praefectus vehiculorum). Maecianus was a vital expert on the imperial council.

C. Oratory: Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto

The two most celebrated practitioners of the age provided Marcus’s training in Greek and Latin oratory.

• Herodes Atticus (Greek):
  • An Athenian of immense wealth and controversial reputation.
  • Known for “true Greek eloquence” and a pleasing, metaphorical style.
  • A critic of Stoicism, he famously attacked the Stoic “discipline of the unemotional,” comparing them to those who prune vines by “chopping down all his vines and olives.”
• Cornelius Fronto (Latin):
  • A native of Numidia, considered second only to Cicero.
  • Focused on the “proper usage of words” and the “search for rare words.”
  • Maintained a literary salon where he engaged in bantering debates over Latin vocabulary (e.g., the proper plural use of “sands” or the meaning of praeter propter).
  • Fronto's task was to prepare Marcus for the high-stakes oratory required in the Senate.

VI. The Intellectual Context: Looking Backward

The literary world Marcus inhabited was one of archaism and retrospection.

• Rejection of Modernity: Rhetoricians of the period largely ignored contemporary writers like Seneca, Lucan, or Tacitus.
• The Golden Age: Inspiration was sought from the figures of the Roman Republic: Ennius, Cato, Plautus, Terence, and Sallust.
• Artificiality: Education involved debating archaic themes, such as the career of Hannibal or the “suicide of the virgins of Miletus,” which the satirist Juvenal mocked as irrelevant.
• The Goal of Oratory: Despite this artificiality, the aim was to produce a “good man skilled in speaking” who could communicate effectively with a mass audience—a critical skill for an emperor in an age without printing or broadcasting.

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The Characters in Play

Article by

Oleksandr Radich

Oleksandr Radich is the founder of PerCubes and a lifelong student of Stoic philosophy and mythology. When not designing wooden figurines, they are writing about symbols, virtues, and the stories behind each piece.

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