The Last Years of Marcus Aurelius: Crisis, Succession, and the Final Campaigns (Aurelius Bio Ch09)

The final years of Marcus Aurelius’s reign were defined by a series of existential threats to the Roman Empire, ranging from internal rebellion to relentless frontier warfare. The most significant internal crisis was the 175 AD rebellion of Avidius Cassius, triggered by false rumors of the Emperor’s death. Marcus managed this crisis with a mix of military preparation and strategic mercy, ultimately securing his position without a prolonged civil war.

Simultaneously, the Emperor focused heavily on securing the Flavian succession by elevating his son, Commodus, to joint ruler status and accelerating his entry into public life. On the frontiers, Marcus pursued a policy of expansion and stabilization against the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Jazyges, aiming to create two new provinces. Domestically, his administration was marked by sophisticated legal reforms concerning inheritance and slavery, as well as a complex, often tragic, relationship with emerging religious movements, most notably the persecution of Christians in Lyons. Marcus Aurelius died on March 17, 180 AD, during a final campaign on the Danube, leaving a legacy of stoic endurance and a transformed imperial administration.

Internal Instability: The Rebellion of Avidius Cassius

Origins and Motivations

The Catalyst: Cassius, a high-ranking official who had achieved fame in the Parthian wars, proclaimed himself emperor in the East. Source accounts suggest the rebellion was "highly puzzling," but likely driven by a message that Marcus was dead.

The Role of Faustina: Some historical accounts suggest the Empress Faustina may have secretly encouraged Cassius. Fearing Marcus’s imminent death and believing her son Commodus was too young and naive to hold the throne, she allegedly sought a protector to prevent the empire from falling to an outsider.

Regional Support: Cassius found strong support in his native Syria and in Egypt, where he was accepted as emperor by May 3, 175 AD. He controlled the "main granary of Rome," giving him significant economic leverage.

Response and Suppression

Imperial Reaction: Marcus was "totally unprepared" for the news. He took immediate steps to protect Rome, sending Vettius Sabinianus to the city with a special force.

Diplomatic Failure for Cassius: Cassius failed to win over Martius Verus, the loyal governor of Cappadocia. Furthermore, no support was forthcoming from the European provinces or the Danubian armies.

The End of the Revolt: The rebellion ended abruptly when Cassius was slain by a centurion named Antonius after a "dream of empire lasting three months and six days." Marcus refused to see Cassius’s head and ordered it buried.

Securing the Dynasty: The Elevation of Commodus

Rapid Advancement

Public Life: On January 20, 175 AD, Commodus was admitted to the colleges of priests. Shortly after, he was given the toga virilis at the front, rather than waiting for the traditional date.

Joint Rulership: By 177 AD, Commodus was granted tribunician power and the title of Augustus. He became joint ruler, effectively securing the succession.

Education: Marcus provided his son with the highest caliber of tutors, including the Greek and Latin teachers Onesicrates, Antistius Capella, and Aius Sanctus. Despite these efforts, contemporary sources noted a "boyish fury" and "unfortunate tastes" in Commodus, such as an early fondness for vulgar jokes and gladiator combat.

Frontier Warfare and Foreign Policy

The Northern Wars

The Jazyges: Following their defeat, the Jazyges were forced to supply 8,000 cavalry to the Roman army, 5,500 of whom were sent to serve in Britain.

Expansions and New Provinces: Marcus’s ultimate strategic goal was the creation of two new provinces: Marcomannia and Sarmatia. By 179–180 AD, Roman forces had established semi-permanent forts in these territories, with 20,000 men stationed in the lands of the Quadi and Marcomanni.

Refusal of Assistance: Marcus famously declined military aid from various barbarian tribes during the Cassian rebellion, stating that "barbarians ought not to know of any trouble arising between the Romans."

Strategic Settlements

To stabilize the borders, Marcus settled large numbers of barbarians (approximately 3,000) within the empire. He sought to "romanize" these groups, though some contemporary critics, such as Cassius Dio, viewed the occupation of these territories as unproductive and a drain on resources.

Administrative and Legal Reforms

Social and Legal Legislation

Slavery: Marcus issued a rescript requiring governors and magistrates to assist slaveowners in searching for runaway slaves. However, he also made significant rulings on the manumission of slaves, often cited in legal collections for his "deep compassion" for individual slaves.

Inheritance: The Senatusconsultum Orfitianum (178 AD) gave children the right of inheritance to their mother’s property, a significant step in recognizing a woman’s individual existence apart from her male agnate relatives.

Crime: The Emperor dealt with complex cases of "crimes passionnels," such as a father who killed his daughter's lover. Marcus granted pardons in cases of extreme provocation while maintaining the letter of the lex Cornelia.

Economic Interventions

Gladiatorial Costs: To address an economic crisis and rising prices of trained gladiators (lanistae), Marcus and Commodus passed a decree fixing prices for gladiators throughout the empire.

Tax Relief: In 178 AD, Marcus cancelled all debts incurred to the treasury and the fiscus over the previous forty-six years, publicly burning the records in the Forum.

Religious Context and Persecutions

The Eleusinian Mysteries

In 176 AD, Marcus and Commodus were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries in Athens. This was partly a political move to demonstrate his innocence of "wrong-doing" following the Cassian revolt and to solidify his image as a protector of ancient Greek culture.

Persecution at Lyons (177 AD)

A severe persecution of Christians occurred in Lugdunum (Lyons). Sources suggest this was driven by:

• Xenophobia: Local mobs targeted Christians, many of whom were Greek immigrants.
• Economic Exploitation: Authorities used Christians as cheap substitutes for expensive gladiators.
• The Trinqui Ritual: Some victims were used in the trinqui, an archaic ritual involving human sacrificial victims.

Marcus’s personal attitude toward the Christians remains "undiscoverable" in his Meditations, but he did not obstruct the course of law, which at the time treated Christianity as a capital crime.

The Death of Marcus Aurelius

Circumstances of Death

Illness: While the exact cause is unknown, sources mention a "violent attack of fever" and stomach/chest conditions. Some historians speculate it was the plague, which was rife in the army.

Final Actions: On his deathbed, Marcus expressed concern for his son and the empire. He reportedly urged those around him to "wait for a few days and not set off at once," and eventually chose to abstain from food and drink to hasten the end.

Legacy: His death was met with deep grief by the army, who "loved him as none other." He was deified by the Senate, and his achievements were commemorated by the erection of a monumental column and a triumphal arch. He was succeeded by Commodus, whose reign would stand in stark contrast to the philosopher-emperor's stoicism.

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