The Education of an Heir Apparent: Insights into the Development of Marcus Aurelius (Aurelius Bio Part 4)

The preserved correspondence between the orator Fronto and the young Marcus Aurelius provides a rare and intimate window into the preparation of a Roman heir apparent. This synthesis examines the rigorous rhetorical training Marcus underwent, the complex master-pupil relationship that defined his youth, and the emergence of his character amidst the political realities of the Antonine age.

• The Primacy of Rhetoric: Fronto’s pedagogical approach emphasized the exhaustive "hunt" for the perfect, "unexpected" word and the diligent study of early Latin authors.
• Tension with Philosophy: A significant intellectual friction existed between Fronto’s devotion to oratory and Marcus’s burgeoning interest in philosophy, which Fronto viewed as a superficial and potentially "perfidious" pursuit.
• Character and Reconciliation: Early in his career, Marcus demonstrated a notable capacity for diplomacy, particularly in mediating the bitter legal conflict between Fronto and Herodes Atticus.
• Imperial Ideology: Public panegyrics of the era, such as those by Aelius Aristides, framed the Roman Empire as a peak of civilization—a "single city-state" protected by a "ring of men"—ruled by a "great governor" (Antoninus Pius) defined by piety and justice.

This educational infographic details the intense linguistic and rhetorical training of Marcus Aurelius under his tutor Fronto, emphasizing their unique master-pupil bond.

The Pedagogical Relationship: Fronto and Marcus Aurelius

The relationship between Marcus and his tutor Fronto was characterized by deep affection, mutual intellectual respect, and a rigorous, often critical, mentorship.

A Bond of Affection and Criticism

The correspondence reveals a bond that transcended mere instruction. Marcus expressed a "passionate longing" for his master, while Fronto compared his love for Marcus to his love for himself. Marcus valued Fronto specifically because he was "not afraid to criticize him" and treated him "as a normal person." He felt "fortunate" to have a teacher who would point out careless writing. The letters frequently mention Marcus’s mother (Domitia Lucilla) and Fronto’s family (his wife and daughter, both named Cratia), suggesting the education of the heir was embedded in a close-knit social circle.

Early Public Speaking

Fronto recalls Marcus’s early efforts in the senate, specifically a speech delivered when Marcus was "scarcely more than a boy." In this speech, Marcus used a bold simile of a "leather bottle" to illustrate a point. While Fronto initially worried the image lacked dignity, he later praised Marcus’s boldness and predicted his rise to a "command of language sufficiently luminous to match such great thoughts."

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Rhetorical Theory and Training

Fronto’s educational program was focused on the meticulous "choice and arrangement of words." He believed that while other arts might allow for superficial mastery, an ignorant speaker is "shown up at once" in the arrangement of words.

The "Hunt" for the Unexpected Word

Fronto advocated for "real industry" in seeking out words. Surprising and unexpected words, in his view, were those that a listener would not think of as a substitute, yet would recognize as the perfect fit once heard. He praised Marcus for his "hard work and industrious application" in "digging deep" for such vocabulary. While acknowledging Cicero as the "head and fount of Roman eloquence," Fronto criticized him for being "far from disposed to search out words with extra effort," relying instead on his high-mindedness rather than "watchfulness." As preferred models for word-seeking, Fronto pointed to M. Porcius Cato, Sallust, Plautus, Ennius, and Lucretius.

The Importance of Precision

Fronto insisted that even a single syllable could fundamentally alter meaning. He illustrated this through the various Latin words for washing: colluere and pelluere, lavare and lavere, eluere and abluere. He famously corrected Marcus for saying vestimenta lavere instead of lavare, and sudorem lavare instead of abluere.

Literary Exercises

Marcus’s training involved diverse and demanding tasks: translations of Greek sentences into Latin (which Fronto claimed could be "inserted into a book of Sallust"), the creation of complex similes—such as the island of Aenaria (Ischia) and its lake representing the Emperor (Antoninus Pius) protecting the Empire—and the composition of hexameters at night, even as Marcus expressed frustration with his lack of success in "pinning down" certain literary efforts.

Visual Presentation of the Tutorship Story

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Tension Between Rhetoric and Philosophy

A recurring theme in the sources is the conflict between Fronto’s rhetorical focus and Marcus’s attraction to philosophy. Fronto warned Marcus that it was "better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy... than to have tasted it superficially." He feared that those who enter the "corridors of some art and turn aside before they have penetrated within, turn out the most perfidious." Fronto had little sympathy for Marcus's sessions with philosophers like Apollonius and viewed Marcus’s excessive "love for reading" as a potential distraction from his public duties.

Marcus wrote a "Discourse on Love" in Greek, mimicking the style of Socrates in Plato's Phaedrus. Though Fronto praised it, modern analysis describes it as a "mannered piece of writing" that is "almost embarrassing to read now."

Political Milestones and Legal Challenges

As Marcus matured, his education shifted toward the practicalities of governance and the complexities of Roman law.

The Herodes Atticus Affair

In late 140, a significant conflict arose involving Herodes Atticus, a prominent Athenian and friend of Marcus, and the prosecutor Demostratus, whom Fronto was retained to defend. Marcus wrote to Fronto, expressing alarm that his friends were appearing on opposite sides of a court case. He urged Fronto to act "honorably" and avoid making a "fool" of himself through excessive acrimony. Fronto initially reacted with "gentle rebuke," sensing Marcus’s letter had been dictated to a secretary. However, he eventually agreed to Marcus’s advice, promising to focus only on the charges of "beating and robbing" and not attack Herodes’s character unnecessarily. The trial’s result is unknown, but Marcus was praised for his "admirable" ability to unite his friends in "mutual love."

The Rise of Marcus and Fronto

In 139, Marcus received the name "Caesar," and by 140 he held the consulship. In 143, Fronto served as consul for July and August. His "chief moment" was a panegyric delivered to the senate in honor of Antoninus Pius, which he wrote with great care to avoid being "banal, repetitious and obsequious."

The State of the Empire: Panegyrics and Ideology

The speeches of Aelius Aristides (c. 144) provide a contemporary view of the Roman Empire during Marcus’s education.

The "Golden Race" and the Universal City

Aristides framed Rome not as a mere city-state but as a "universal city" where the "pre-eminence of Rome lay as much in its perfection as in its great size." He described the Roman army as the "greatest single 'work of perfection' in the empire" due to its recruitment, training, and discipline. He praised the "ring of men" (the army) and the physical frontier walls—specifically alluding to the Antonine Wall between the Forth and Clyde—as a second line of defense that protected the civilized world.

The Character of Antoninus Pius

Aristides contrasted Antoninus Pius with his predecessor, Hadrian. Pius was depicted as a "great governor," a "wise statesman" who ruled "free men" rather than slaves. He was praised for his "unmoved disposition toward all" and for settling the empire "like a good pilot." Unlike previous emperors, Pius was lauded for his lack of "secret agents" (frumentarii) and for his gentleness, goodness, and approachability.

Daily Life and Character Development

The correspondence offers glimpses into Marcus's personal habits and his life away from the senate.

Marcus participated in the "vintage" (grape harvest), describing the hard work of gathering grapes, "sweating away and merry," and noting his tutor's advice to "work with my hands." He enjoyed hunting, though he admitted to being "unlucky" in his efforts, and he visited ancient towns like Anagnia, noting its numerous "religious ceremonies" and "books written on linen."

Both Marcus and Fronto suffered from frequent illness. Marcus often complained of "sleepless nights" and "anxieties," while Fronto was plagued by chronic pain in his limbs and knees. Even when in the country, Marcus maintained a strict schedule, working from the "ninth hour of the night until the second hour of the day" before engaging in social or physical activities. He frequently expressed that he felt he was "drivelling more than ever" when tired but remained committed to his studies.