The Northern Wars of Marcus Aurelius: Military, Financial, and Administrative Analysis (169–175 AD) (Aurelius Bio Part 8)

February 21, 2026 Oleksandr Radich

The period between 169 and 175 AD represents one of the most volatile eras of Marcus Aurelius’s reign, characterized by a transition from domestic grief and financial crisis to a protracted, existential struggle on the northern frontiers. Following the death of co-emperor Lucius Verus in early 169, Marcus was forced to navigate a severe economic downturn caused by the Antonine Plague, which decimated tax revenues while military expenditures skyrocketed.

To fund the “Northern Wars,” the Emperor implemented radical measures, including the auction of imperial palace property and the recruitment of slaves and gladiators into the legions. Despite an initial catastrophic defeat in 170 AD—which saw the first foreign invasion of Italy in centuries—Roman forces eventually regained the initiative through a combination of grueling seasonal campaigns, sophisticated diplomacy to fracture barbarian coalitions, and controversial settlement policies. The period concluded with the Roman military on the verge of annexing tribal territories, a momentum only halted by the internal rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the East.

I. Post-War Transition and Financial Emergency

The Death of Lucius Verus

The period begins with the funeral ceremonies and deification of Lucius Verus as Divus Verus. Marcus ensured the unity of the imperial family by incorporating the new god into the existing priesthood of Antoninus Pius, creating the sodales Antoniniani Veriani.

Economic Crisis and Resource Mobilization

The Antonine Plague severely diminished governmental revenues from taxes and imperial estates. Concurrently, the need to raise new legions and replenish gaps in the northern defenses necessitated a massive increase in capital expenditure.

Drastic Recruitment: To plug gaps in the ranks, the state accepted slaves as volunteers (granting them freedom upon enrollment), formed special units of gladiators, and conscripted bandits from Dalmatia and Dardania. Mercenaries were also hired from Germanic peoples.
The Imperial Auction: In 169 AD, to avoid imposing extraordinary taxes on the provinces, Marcus held a two-month public auction of palace property in the Forum of Trajan. Items sold included gold and crystal vessels; statues and paintings by great artists; the Empress Faustina’s silk and gold-embroidered clothing; jewels discovered in a “sacred sanctum” of Hadrian.
Currency Debasement: As the supply of bullion failed to meet the demand for coinage, the imperial currency was debased to increase the money supply.

II. Dynastic and Strategic Appointments

The Marriage of Lucilla

Marcus faced a strategic dilemma regarding his daughter Lucilla, the young widow of Lucius Verus. To prevent her from being used by “unscrupulous and ambitious” suitors, Marcus married her to Claudius Pompeianus.

Pompeianus’s Profile: A Roman knight from Antioch of Syrian origin, Pompeianus was considerably older than Lucilla and lacked noble birth.
Strategic Rationale: His lack of high-born “dangerous ambitions” and his proven military record (former governor of Lower Pannonia) made him a reliable chief military adviser for the emperor.

Internal Grief and Stoic Discipline

Shortly before departing for the front, Marcus’s younger son, Annius Verus, died at age seven. Demonstrating Stoic self-discipline, Marcus mourned for only five days before returning to public business, refusing to let the funeral interrupt the games of Jupiter.

III. The Military Crisis of 170 AD

The campaigning season of 170 AD was marked by what sources describe as a “disastrous setback.”

The Great Defeat: A Roman offensive across the Danube met with disaster, resulting in the loss of approximately 20,000 men.
Invasion of Italy: The Marcomanni and Quadi breached the Julian Alps, wiped out Opitergium, and besieged the vital port of Aquileia. This represented the first time Italy had been invaded by a foreign enemy in centuries.
Widespread Rebellion: The East—Moorish rebels invaded the Iberian peninsula, striking at Baetica; Egypt—the Bucoli (herdsmen) under a priest named Isidorus revolted, nearly capturing Alexandria before being suppressed by Avidius Cassius; the Balkans—the Costoboci overran frontier provinces, reaching as far as Eleusis in Greece, where they destroyed the shrine of the Mysteries.

IV. Recovery and the “Rain Miracle”

By 171–172 AD, Marcus and his generals, including Pompeianus and the future emperor Pertinax, began to clear Italy and the Alpine provinces of invaders.

The Offensive of 172

The Roman army moved into enemy territory, an event commemorated by the profectio (official departure) and adocutio (addressing the troops) depicted on imperial coinage.

The Rain Miracle (172 AD)

One of the most famous episodes of the war occurred when the Roman army was surrounded by the Quadi in a waterless location, facing death by thirst and exhaustion. A sudden, violent thunderstorm saved the Romans while striking the enemy with lightning.

Pagan Attribution: Contemporary accounts attributed the miracle to Mercury (Hermes Aerios) or the magic of an Egyptian priest named Harnouphis.
Christian Attribution: Later Christian tradition claimed the miracle was the result of prayers from the Twelfth Legion (Fulminata), though historical analysis suggests this legion was actually stationed in Cappadocia at the time.

V. Diplomacy and Settlement Policies

Marcus employed a “divide and rule” strategy to break the barbarian “conspiracy.”

Tribal Detachment: Diplomatic efforts were made to detach the Quadi and other tribes from the Marcomanni. Some tribes were granted peace in exchange for horses, cattle, and the return of deserters and captives.
Settlement of Barbarians: Marcus accepted some barbarian settlers onto Roman land in provinces like Dacia, Pannonia, and even Italy (Ravenna). This policy was intended to address the depopulation of the countryside caused by the plague.
Note: After a revolt by settlers in Ravenna, Marcus ceased settling barbarians in Italy and banished those who had already arrived.
The Astingi and Lacringes: These tribes were successfully turned into allies, used to attack other hostile groups like the Costoboci, thereby allowing Roman forces to concentrate on the Marcomanni.

VI. Administrative and Judicial Leadership in the Field

Despite the rigors of the campaign, Marcus maintained a rigorous schedule of judicial and administrative duties.

Judicial Rigor

Marcus was known for his “close attention to legal business,” often spending entire days adjudicating cases in court. A notable case involved the Athenian millionaire Herodes Atticus and his conflict with the Quintilii brothers. Marcus heard the case at his headquarters in Sirmium, ultimately punishing Herodes's freedmen while treating the distraught Herodes with relative leniency.

Personal Health and Theriac

The Emperor’s physical health was precarious. He suffered from chest and stomach conditions and relied on a daily dose of theriac, a medicine prescribed by the physician Galen.

Composition: The mixture contained opium.
Effects and Criticism: While Marcus occasionally found it made him drowsy, sources suggest he maintained a high level of mental clarity, though he was “bitterly criticized” by some for his devotion to philosophy and military discipline.

VII. The Turning Point (175 AD)

By 175 AD, the Romans had largely subjugated the Marcomanni and Quadi. Marcus was credited with the intent to “exterminate the Sarmatians utterly” and was on the verge of creating new provinces in their territory.

However, this momentum was interrupted in the spring of 175 AD when news reached the front that Avidius Cassius, the governor of Syria, had declared himself Emperor and had been recognized by most of the eastern provinces, including Egypt. This rebellion forced Marcus to abandon his immediate plans for the northern frontier to secure his throne in the East.